Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. As mentioned earlier, REM sleep is marked by rapid movements of the eyes. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). 1. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea (McDaid et al., 2009). Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Low doses increase relaxation, decrease inhibitions. Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). Keep your bedroom temperature between 60 and 67 degrees. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown inFigure 4.11, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. Treatment. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Research indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, & Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gmez, Bootzin, & Nadel, 2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, & Walker, 2007). Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). Following the initial rush, users experience 46 hours of going on the nod, alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. Think meditation might help? Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. Sore throat. Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Methadoneis a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. 2. Social programs like Medicare: a - offer health coverage for the older adults 24. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. Complications. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? Although she did not experience any dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy as a result of sleep testing. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. It is not uncommon for people suffering from undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea to fear that their careers will be affected by the lack of sleep, illustrated by this statement from another patient, Im in a job where theres a premium on being mentally alert. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Given that college students are notorious for suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini, 2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related issues on a regular basis. Has something like this ever happened to you? Getting the optimal amount of sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). b. life expectancy has reached a new high. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function should help you understand that cramming all night for a test may be not effective and can even prove counterproductive. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. While the possession and use of marijuana remain illegal in many states, it is now legal to possess limited quantities of marijuana for recreational use in eleven states: Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. d. both b and c. 2. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. (credit: Laurie Avocado). They can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people affected by seasonal variations in light. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). The heart rate slows . Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. The decade from 20102019 brought many changes in laws regarding marijuana. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. C) the severity and duration of the problem. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? a. will be healthier than children because they are exposed to fewer infectious diseases.b. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). I was really sleepy and having trouble concentrating. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. Loss of appetite. There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). 3. This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). c. deaths due to accidents have increased. NCEH provides leadership to promote health and quality of life by preventing or controlling those diseases, birth defects, or disabilities resulting from interaction between people and the environment. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. It is typically consumed in pill form. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. Insudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . Abnormal Motor Behavior. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. Delusions. Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men.
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